- Social Psychology is the scientific study of how people's feelings, thoughts, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of other people. (ALPORT, 1954)
- Social Psychology seeks to study and understand the nature and causes of human behavior in social settings.
- Social psychology is a scientific discipline since it uses scientific methods of investigation in order to understand various social phenomenon
- With respect to the birth of the field, two years are very important: 1897 and 1908
In 1897, Norman Triplett conducted the first experiment in social psychology.
Triplett wanted to study the effects of competition on individual performance— He noticed that many fellow bicyclists tended to ride at a faster pace when they were in groups, but at a more relaxed pace when they were riding alone. He developed the theory of dynamo genesis which states that the presence of others releases energy in the individuals which they could not release on their own
This experiment led to the concept of social facilitation— refer to the finding that the presence of others enhanced performance of the individual.
2. The early 20th century marked the formalization of social psychology.
William McDougall and Edward Alsworth Ross are credited with writing two of the earliest textbooks on social psychology, published in 1908.
McDougall focused on instinctual drives and their role in social behaviour, while Ross emphasized the social environment’s role in shaping human behaviour.
3. Kurt Lewin
Kurt Lewin formulated the principle that “Behavior is a function of the person & situation.” (b=f{PE})
Particularly through the work of Kurt Lewin, Lewin is often
considered the father of modern social psychology.
- Key Aspects of Lewin's Formula:
Person (P):
This
includes the individual's past, present, and future expectations, personality
traits, abilities, motivations, and goals.
- Environment (E):
This refers
to the "life space" of the individual, encompassing not just the
physical surroundings but also the social and contextual settings that are
perceived by the person.
- Function (f):
The
"function" or "f" signifies that the person and environment
are not separate but interact and influence each other to produce
behavior.
His field
theory proposed that behavior is the result of the interaction between an
individual’s internal state and their social environment.
Lewin famously coined the phrase, “There is nothing so practical as a
good theory,” stressing the importance of applying theoretical research
to real-world problems.
Social Psychology During World War II
World War II
(1939-1945) had a profound impact on the field of social psychology. The war
triggered a surge of interest in studying human behaviour in relation to
group dynamics, obedience, and persuasion. Many influential psychologists
fled Europe during this time, bringing their ideas to the United States.
Adolf
Eichmann's trial and Défense of "just following orders" was a
catalyst for Stanley Milgram's famous experiments on obedience to
authority.
4. Milgram’s obedience study
https://www.simplypsychology.org/milgram.html
The Milgram Shock Experiment, conducted by Stanley Milgram in the
1960s, tested obedience to authority. Participants were instructed to
administer increasingly severe electric shocks to another person, who was
actually an actor, as they answered questions incorrectly. Despite hearing the
actor’s screams, most participants continued administering shocks,
demonstrating the powerful influence of authority figures on behaviour.
• by Stanley
Milgram
• in 1961 in
yale university
• inspired
by the Nazi soldiers
Sample
- 40 males, aged 20–50 (varied
jobs & education).
- Recruited via ads (volunteer
sampling).
- Paid $4.50 (kept regardless).
He
developed a shock generator, starting with shock levels at 30 volts up to 450
volts. The switches of the generator were labeled as "slight shock,"
"moderate shock" and "danger: severe shock". The sample in
the experiment consisted of 40 men who were recruited through newspaper ads. He
developed a shock generator, starting with shock levels at 30 volts up to 450
volts. The switches of the generator were labeled as "slight shock," "moderate
shock" and "danger: severe shock".
The participants acted as a teacher who had to deliver a shock to the student
each time the student answered incorrectly. While the participant thought he
was delivering real shocks, the student who was a confederate, pretended to be
shocked. Participants heard sounds of the student pleading to be released or
suffering a heart condition. At the 300-volt level, the student banged on the
wall and demanded to be released. After this point, the learner became quiet
and did not answer any further questions. The experimenter instructed the
participant to treat this silence as an incorrect response and deliver a
further shock.
Table 1: Showing voltage level & the corresponding responses to
it
Voltage
Confederate response
|
75 |
grunts |
|
120 |
Says that he
would not continue with this experiment |
|
150 |
Bloodcurdling |
|
200 |
screams |
|
300 |
Refuses to answer, and mentions about a heart
condition |
|
330+ |
silence |
It was found
that, 65% of the participants delivered the maximum shocks. Many situational
factors can explain such high levels of obedience (Milgram, 1961):
· The physical presence of an
authority figure increased obedience.
· Teacher and learner status was determined randomly.
· The shocks were said to be painful, not dangerous.
· Participants assumed that the experimenter was an
expert.
· Since the study was sponsored by Yale, many
participants believed that the experiment must be safe.
This classic experiment suggests that situational variables have a greater role
than personality factors in determining obedience.
Ethical Issues
- Deception (believed shocks were real).
- Emotional distress (intense anxiety, guilt).
- Right to withdraw unclear (pressured by prods).
5. Solomon Asch Conformity Experiment
In psychological terms, conformity refers to an
individual's tendency to follow the unspoken rules or behaviors of the social
group to which they belong.
The Asch conformity experiments were a series of psychological experiments conducted by Solomon Asch in the 1950s.
The experiments revealed the degree to which a person's own opinions are influenced by those of a group. Asch found that people were willing to ignore reality and give an incorrect answer in order to conform to the rest of the group.
The Asch conformity experiments are among the most famous in psychology's history and have inspired a wealth of additional research on conformity and group behavior. This research has provided important insight into how, why, and when people conform and the effects of social pressure on behaviour.
In his experiments, Asch wanted to examine whether social pressure could force people to profess to holding demonstrably untrue beliefs. Asch believed investigating group pressure was an important task in the post–World War II era, since it was this pressure that had essentially allowed Adolf Hitler and the Nazis to consolidate power in Germany before the war.
Asch's initial experiment featured eight men seated together in a room. Seven of these were "confederates," or actors secretly working with Asch. The eighth man was a real test subject who believed he was participating in a visual perception experiment. Research assistants held up eighteen pairs of cards for the men to see. The first card of each pair had a black vertical line on it. The second card had three vertical black lines of different lengths. The men had to determine which line on the second card was the same length as the line on the first card.
This part of
the experiment was designed to be simplistic. In each case, it was readily
apparent which of the three lines matched the length of the single line.
However, for the majority of the eighteen pairs of cards, the seven
confederates gave the same wrong answer. The real test subject, who always
answered last or almost last, was then asked for his answer. The unanimously
wrong preceding answers were intended to pressure the subject into knowingly
providing the same wrong answer so he would not appear to be a dissenter in the
group.
In the end,
36.8 percent of Asch's real test subjects answered incorrectly to conform to
the rest of the group. Although the majority of test subjects (63.2 percent)
defied the group and answered correctly, the results still unsettled Asch. He
questioned why social pressure would make anyone at all knowingly ignore their
own perceptions and provide a clearly wrong answer to a simple question.
Causes of
Social Behaviour and Thought
Social
psychology seeks to understand the factors that shape how individuals think,
feel, and act in social situations.
Although societies and cultures differ widely in customs and traditions, it is
ultimately individuals who perform actions—whether it is helping,
falling in love, showing prejudice, or acting aggressively.
Thus, the
focus of social psychology is on individuals within their social contexts.
Social behaviour is never isolated but influenced by multiple interacting
causes.
Researchers
generally highlight five primary factors that shape social behaviour and
thought:
1.
Actions and Characteristics of Others
- Direct influence:
Other people’s behaviour strongly impacts our own.
Example:
slowing down when seeing a police car, or smiling back at someone who smiles.
- Social influence:
Others can exert both direct and indirect pressure on how we act.
Example:
Peer pressure, conformity, or even subtle cues like eye contact.
- Appearance and visible traits:
People react differently depending on observable features (e.g., attractiveness, age, race, body language). - Social comparison:
We evaluate ourselves by comparing to others, which can inspire motivation or create insecurity. - Hawthorne effect:
We often alter our behaviour when we know we are being observed.
Key idea: The actions, presence, and
appearance of other people shape our own perceptions, emotions, and behaviours.
2.
Cognitive Processes
- Social cognition:
Humans constantly try to interpret and make sense of the social world. - Perceptions and judgments:
Our interpretations of others’ motives and behaviours guide how we respond.
Example: A
friend arriving late may be excused if traffic caused the delay, but not if
lateness is habitual.
- Memory:
Past experiences with individuals influence present reactions. - Reasoning:
- Sometimes automatic → quick
judgments, stereotypes, or biases.
- Sometimes deliberate → careful
reflection before acting.
- Beliefs and attitudes:
Influence how we approach social interactions. - Believing people are
trustworthy → openness.
- Believing people are deceitful
→ suspicion.
Key idea: How we think, remember, and
interpret others’ actions is central to our behaviour.
3.
Ecological Variables (The Physical Environment)
- Environmental influences:
Physical conditions impact mood, thoughts, and behaviour. - Hot weather → higher
irritability and aggression.
- Pleasant scents or comfortable
settings → more helpfulness and positive interactions.
- Urban vs. rural settings:
- Urban: fast-paced, crowded,
often leading to stress and reduced social engagement.
- Rural: closer ties, slower
pace, stronger sense of community.
- Design of spaces:
- Crowded public areas →
reserved, impersonal behaviour.
- Private or calm spaces → more
openness and meaningful interaction.
Key idea: The physical world—climate,
crowding, design of space—shapes how we behave socially.
4.
Cultural Context
- Social norms:
Every culture sets rules for behaviour (e.g., greetings, dress codes, dating customs). - Group membership:
- People belong to multiple
groups (family, religion, nation, profession).
- Group identification influences
behaviour through ingroup bias (favouring one’s own group) and outgroup
prejudice.
- Social identity:
How strongly we identify with groups shapes our behaviour and attitudes. - Example: National identity
affecting attitudes toward foreigners.
- Cultural variation:
Practices such as dating, marriage, bribery, or retirement differ greatly across societies.
Key idea: Culture provides the rules,
values, and identities that guide behaviour and thought.
5.
Biological Factors
- Genetic influences:
Behavioural tendencies can be shaped by inherited traits. - Evolutionary psychology:
Human social behaviour (e.g., cooperation, attraction) evolved to solve survival challenges. - Neurobiological factors:
Hormones and brain processes affect social interaction. - Oxytocin → bonding, trust,
empathy.
- Cortisol → stress responses
influencing aggression or withdrawal.
- Interaction of biology &
environment:
Genes and biology set predispositions, but experiences and culture shape how they manifest.
Key idea: Biology and evolution influence
social behaviour, but always in interaction with social environments.
Basic
Principles in a Changing World
- Social psychologists aim to
discover universal principles of social life—such as attraction,
persuasion, prejudice, and helping.
- Challenges:
- Cultural differences complicate generalization.
- Rapid social change (social media, online dating,
globalization) changes the context of interactions.
- Despite change, core
principles remain stable:
- Attractiveness remains key in
romantic attraction.
- Persuasion principles remain
constant even if the medium shifts (e.g., ads online vs. posters).
Application
of Social Psychology
Social
psychology’s applied branch harnesses its core theories, principles, and research to tackle
real-life problems and promote positive change across several domains.
From boosting public health to reforming legal systems and improving workplace
dynamics, social psychology helps translate theory into action.
Primary
Areas of Application:
The
applications outlined can be grouped into three overarching domains:
1.
Health
2.
Law
3.
Workplace
1. Health
& Well-Being
Social
psychology plays a crucial role in shaping strategies for health improvement:
- Health Behavior Change
Crafting interventions (like campaigns to quit smoking or adopt healthy diets) based on attitudes, social norms, and motivation. formalpsychology.com - Health Communication
Designing effective messaging—through social marketing and education—to make health guidelines accessible and impactful. formalpsychology.com - Health Disparities
Exploring how social and cultural factors (race, class, access issues) affect health and creating equitable interventions. formalpsychology.com - Chronic Illness
Addressing psychological distress, coping strategies, and quality of life for patients and families through social-context-informed approaches. formalpsychology.com - Health Policy
Informing evidence-based, equitable policies by considering behavioral drivers behind health decisions. formalpsychology.com
2. Law
& Justice
Social
psychology shines a light on how human behavior and cognition can shape—and
improve—the legal process:
- Jury Decision-Making
Analyzing how biases, emotions, and stereotypes influence deliberations and verdicts, and aiming to make decisions fairer. formalpsychology.com - Eyewitness Testimony
Investigating memory reliability, suggestibility, and perceptual errors to boost the credibility of witness statements. formalpsychology.com - Criminal Behavior
Understanding the social, situational, and personal factors that contribute to crime, then using that understanding to design interventions. formalpsychology.com - Law Enforcement
Applying psychology to enhance decision-making, reduce bias, improve communication, and strengthen police-community relations. formalpsychology.com - Legal Reform
Studying how social norms, public opinion, and ideology shape attitudes toward reform—and using that knowledge to promote fair policies. formalpsychology.com
3.
Workplace Dynamics
From the
office to the factory floor, social psychology helps make work environments
more supportive, fair, and productive:
- Organizational Behavior
Enhancing motivation, leadership, communication, and job satisfaction through theories of group dynamics and social interaction. formalpsychology.com - Diversity & Inclusion
Identifying workplace biases, designing inclusive practices, and reducing discrimination to foster belonging and equity. formalpsychology.com - Occupational Health & Safety
Addressing stress, fatigue, and error—rooting interventions in understanding psychological factors behind accidents and burnout. formalpsychology.com - Work-Life Balance
Tackling job stress and burnout by examining how work impacts personal life, and crafting strategies for healthier equilibrium. formalpsychology.com - Human Resource Management
Improving recruitment, training, performance review, and employee well-being through behavior-informed HR practices.
Why It Matters (Applications of Social Psychology)
The
application of social psychology is important because it creates practical,
real-world impact:
- Interventions fit human behavior → Designed around how people
actually think, feel, and make decisions.
- Evidence-based solutions → Grounded in research,
adaptable to different contexts, and mindful of human behavior.
- Positive social change → Helps improve health, promote
fairness in law and justice, and build healthier, more effective
workplaces.
1.
Interplay of Social Thought & Behaviour
- Social psychologists now agree
that social thought (how we interpret/understand others) and social
behaviour (how we act in social settings) are inseparable.
- They constantly influence each
other:
- Thought → Action: Our judgments, intentions,
attitudes, and emotions shape how we behave.
- Action → Thought: The outcomes of our actions
change how we think in the future.
- Key trend: increasing focus on emotions
in guiding social thought and behaviour.
- Another trend: studying how relationships
are formed and developed.
2. Modern
Themes & Perspectives
1.
Social Neuroscience
o Links brain activity to social
thought and behaviour.
o Helps explain neural processes behind
prejudice, aggression, empathy, and stress-related performance issues.
o Tools: fMRI, PET scans, brain imaging
techniques.
2.
Implicit Processes
o Many behaviours are influenced by nonconscious
factors (things we are unaware of).
o Growing attention to how hidden
biases and automatic thoughts affect interactions.
3.
Multicultural Perspective
o Recognizes that culture strongly
shapes social thought and behaviour.
o Warns that findings from one culture
(e.g., Western) may not apply to others.
o Pushes for more cross-cultural
research.
3. Social
Cognition vs. Social Behaviour
- Earlier division:
- Social behaviour psychologists → focused on how people act in
social contexts.
- Social cognition psychologists → focused on how people make
sense of themselves and others.
- Current view: Both are interconnected.
- Thoughts (memory, beliefs,
emotions, intentions) and behaviours are part of the same process.
- Example: What we think of a
person influences how we treat them → which in turn shapes our future
thoughts about them.
4. Role
of Emotions
- Emotions & moods
significantly influence social life.
- Findings:
- People tend to ask favours
when the other person is in a good mood.
- Positive mood increases willingness to help
others.
- First impressions are
influenced by our current mood.
- Modern research: explores
broader effects of emotions on decisions, impressions, cooperation, and
conflict.
- Bottom line: Emotions guide
both our thoughts and actions.
5. Social
Neuroscience (Brain & Social Behaviour)
- Definition: study of how brain activity
relates to social processes.
- Methods: fMRI, PET scans, other
brain-imaging techniques.
- Applications:
- Understanding neural basis of
prejudice, aggression, stress (“choking under pressure”), empathy, and
helping behaviour.
- Identifying which brain
regions are active during different social tasks.
- Attitudes & Values:
- Strongly influence brain
activity and behaviour.
- Van Berkum study: people process information
that contradicts their values extremely fast—before conscious
thought.
- Conclusion: Attitudes and
values deeply shape social thought, brain activity, and actions.
6. Mirror
Neurons & Empathy
- Mirror neurons: brain cells activated both when
performing an action and when observing someone else perform it.
- Located in the frontal
operculum.
- Function: allow us to feel
empathy by mirroring others’ emotions and actions.
- Example: In studies (Montgomery,
Seeherman & Haxby, 2009), people high in empathy showed greater
activity in mirror neurons when viewing facial expressions.
- Limits: not all social thoughts
(e.g., group identity, reciprocity) can be fully explained through brain
activity.
- Still, mirror neuron research
has advanced our understanding of empathy and social connection.
7. Behavioural Genetics
- Field that studies the role of genes
in shaping behaviour.
- Examples of findings:
- Political attitudes may be
partly heritable.
- Genes may influence sexual
orientation and identity.
- Suggests that behaviour is
shaped by both nature (genes) and nurture (environment).
8.
Evolutionary Psychology
- Applies evolutionary
principles to explain behaviour.
- Suggests current behaviours
evolved from adaptive traits that helped ancestors survive and
reproduce.
- Example:
- Jealousy → explained as a
protective mechanism shaped by evolutionary pressures.
- Helps predict gender
differences and situational triggers of jealousy.
- Provides insight into universal
human behaviours.
9.
Current Approach of Social Psychology
- Modern social psychology is eclectic
→ uses multiple approaches.
- Combines:
- Neuroscience (brain activity)
- Genetics (heredity)
- Evolutionary theory (adaptation)
- Direct observation of behaviour
- Goal: build a comprehensive understanding of how people think, feel, and act in social situations
